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(a) Motivation is some driving force within individuals
by which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or
expectation.
● It is the force that energises behaviour, gives
direction to that behaviour and underlies its tendency to persist.
● It determines a person’s behaviour and resulting
performance and is a product of both ability level and motivation. Managers
must seek to raise this level of motivation and direct its driving force
towards the achievement of organisational goals.
(b) (i) Hygiene factors
● associated with Herzberg’s two factor theory
● base on research into factors that made employees
feel satisfied and dissatisfied at work
● hygiene factors were defined as factors which to
the degree they are absent increase worker dissatisfaction but when present
prevent job dissatisfaction but do not in themselves produce positive
motivation
● they include quality of supervision,
interpersonal relations, salary/wage levels, working conditions and company
policies/supervision
● they are maintenance factors that relate to the
context of the job rather than its Content
(ii) Expectancy
● is associated with the work of Vroom and is a
process theory based on the assertion that people are not necessarily motivated
by internal needs but by the expectation that certain actions will achieve an
outcome seen by them as desirable
● motivation is to be viewed as a dynamic function
of the perceived relationship between:
– effort expended and effective level of
performance
– the expectation that rewards will be related to
performance
– the expectation that rewards or desired outcomes
will be forthcoming
● employees perform well when they can clearly see
this link between effort, performance and reward
● if they expect that better performance will lead
to outcomes such as promotion, extra responsibility and more pay then they will
be motivated to apply extra effort.
(iii) Equity
● is associate with the work of Stacey Adams who
contended that individuals were motivated to achieve a position of balance or
equity
● this was expressed in terms of a perceived ratio
of inputs to outcomes in relation to a “comparison other” – a comparison other
can receive a higher level of outputs (pay, recognition, etc) so long as this
required a correspondingly higher level of inputs (effort, skill, etc)
● relative disparities between inputs and outputs
compared to the comparator motivates the individual to reduce the inequity and
move back to a position of balance
● if the patterns of inequity persist there will be
a potential for continuing demotivation
(c) Practical guidelines for motivating
subordinates
● Try to ensure that motivation is individualised
to the subordinates needs and expectations. If social needs are important to
the individual then make him or her part of a team.
● The manager has “control” over many of the
psychological rewards that relate to intrinsic motivation i.e. the work itself,
interest in the work – these should be applied to support the subordinate’s
growth and development.
● A subordinate’s desire for promotion will only
result in high performance if there is the belief and expectation that it will
lead to promotion. If this is seen to depend on age or length of service there
will be no motivation.
● Motivation must relate to a subordinate’s
position on the hierarchy of needs. Once a lower order need is satisfied it no
longer acts as a strong motivator – a highly thought of professional worker on
a good salary may only be motivated self actualisation whereas a school leaver
is primarily driven by economic needs.
● A clear distinction needs to be made between
“hygiene” factors that prevent dissatisfaction and the motivating factors – the
manager controls many of the “satisfiers” through, for example, delegation of
tasks and appraisal feedback.
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
(a) Motivation seeks to encourage
employees to work to the best of their abilities and direct their efforts to
the goals of the organisation. Motivation as directed and persistent behaviour
is unique to the individual and is the driving force by which they attempt to
achieve some goal that satisfies their need or expectation
Relevant theories divide into needs
theories that seek to explain the inner drives or desires that influence
behaviour, and process theories that focus on the thought mechanisms that
determine the course of action.
(i) production line worker
– will tend to be undertaking a
specialised and repetitive task over which they have little control
– some theorists like Schein and
McGregor perceived such workers as ‘economic’ man where money is their primary
drive. Theory ‘X’ suggested they were lazy and disliked work, avoided
responsibility and were mainly concerned with Maslow’s economic and securityneeds.
These were lower level needs in Maslow’s hierarchy.
– Motivating such workers therefore
required coercion, control, direction and threats. F W Taylor had concluded
that piece rate systems providing a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work were
an
effective carrot. This is supported
by more modern process theories e.g. Vroom, that suggest employees are not
necessarily motivated by internal needs but more by the expectation that
certain actions will achieve an outcome seen as desirable. In this case they
see a positive relationship between effort, performance and reward
– The work of Mayo demonstrated that
production workers were motivated by affiliation needs and would respond to
management attentions through the Hawthorne effect. This led to more
enlightened motivation based around
improved job design and working groups.
(ii) first line supervisor
– As a member of management and
responsible for production line employees they are likely to respond to higher
order needs e.g. esteem needs
– The use of motivators will be more
effective than giving attention to the hygiene factors of Herzberg. Hygiene
factors only create dissatisfaction if they are absent but no positive
motivation. Pay,working conditions, security and supervisory relationships only
satisfy level 1-2 needs.
– Motivators, such as the work
itself, recognition, responsibility, advancement and achievement satisfy level
4-5 needs and are much more relevant to the case of the supervisor –
Supervisors are much more likely to conform to Theory ‘Y’. They see work as
natural and not only accept but seek responsibility. They will be self directed
and exercise self control in their
commitment towards organisational
objectives. – A participative management style will make employees feel valued
as well as the first line supervisor
(iii)a chief executive officer (CEO)
is at the top of the chain of command and responsible for running the company
and achieving its goals.
– The relative growth in executive
salaries in recent years would seem to suggest that they are more motivated by
money than production line workers
– Theorists have, however, portrayed
the CEO as an example of ‘self actualising’ man seeking to satisfy their
highest level needs through work i.e. achievement and recognition from building
up an excellent company. They seek challenge and purpose in their job and
opportunities to harness their self fulfilment needs.
– Motivation is however more complex
than this and Schein pointed out that individuals are capable of being motivated
in different ways in different environments.
– Vroom’s expectancy theory also
applies to the CEO since they, of all people, will consider the likely outcomes
of their actions, weigh and evaluate the attractiveness of alternatives and use
these as the basis for decisions
– Handy’s motivational calculus also
informs the CEO’s decision to act by making motivation depend on the
individual’s own needs,the desired results and the E-factors of effort, energy,
excitement, enthusiasm, emotion and expenditure.
(b) Equity theory
was developed by J Stacey Adams who argued that people strive to achieve a
situation of balance or equity in terms of the perceivedratio of inputs to
outcomes in relation to a ‘comparison other’.
– the ‘comparison other’ is selected
based on relevant attributes e.g. a fellow worker or one in a comparable
organization
– inputs include effort, skill,
performance and circumstances while outputs may include pay, esteem,
recognition, fringe benefits and job interest.
– perceived inequity between inputs
and outputs will motivate the individual to move the ratio back into balance
– managers therefore need to know the
perceived equity among their staff and to make the relationship between inputs
and outputs open and explicit.
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