TYPES OF DATA AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

TYPES OF DATA

a)Quantitative'and Qualitative Data.

b) Sample and Census Data.

c) Primary and Secondary data.

a) Quantitative and Qualitative data: Quantitative data are those set of information which are quantifiable and can be expressed in some standard units

 Qualitative data, on the other hand, are not quantifiable, that is, cannot be expressed in standard units of measurement

b) Sample and Census Data:   data can be collected either by census method or sample method. Information collected through sample inquiry is called sample data and the one collected through census inquiry is called census data. Population census data are collected every ten years in India.

c) Primary and Secondary Data: primary data are collected by the investigator through field survey. Such data are in raw form and must be refined before use. On the other hand, secondary data are extracted from the existing published or unpublished sources

Difference between primary  and secondary data

Primary Data

·        Needs more funds.

·        Investigating Agency collects the data.

·        Requires longer time for collection.

·        More reliable and suitable to the enquiry because the investigator himself collects it.

·        Requires elaborate organisation.

·        No extra precautions are required.

Secondary Data

·                  Needs comparatively less funds.

·                  Some other investigating agency collects it for its own use.

·                  Requires less time for collection.

·                  Less reliable and suitable as someone else has done that job of collection which may not serve the purpose.

·                  No need of any organizational set up.

·                  Secondary data need more care and attention.

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE FOR PRIMARY DATA

1.   observation method

2.   experimentation method

3.   questionnaire method

4.   interviewing

5.   case study method

1) OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher when it serves a formulated research purpose is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.

Under the observation method the information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from respondent

ADVANTAGES

1. The method eliminates subjective bias

2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is current happening it is not complicated either by past behaviour or future intentions and attitudes.

3. This method is independent of respondent willingness to respondents as such is relatively less demanded of active co-operation on the part of the respondents as happens to be the case in interview or the questionnaire method.

4. This method is particularly suitable in studies, which deal with subjects who are not capable giving verbal reports of their feeling for one reason or the other.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Its s an expensive method

2. The information provided by this method is very limited.

3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.

4. The fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

2) SURVEYS(QUESTIONNAIRE) 

Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for events to happen Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are primarily concerned with present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to current conditions.

1. Survey type researches usually have larger samples because percentages of responses generally happen to be low, as low as 20 to 30%, especially in mailed questionnaire studies. Thus, the survey method gathers data relatively from the large number of cases at a peculiar time; it is essentially cross-sectional.

2. Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies, usually appropriate in case of social and behavioral sciences because many type of behavior that interest researcher cannot be arranged in realistic setting.

3. Surveys are example of field research and are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing analysis of the relationship between non-manipulated variables.

4. Surveys may either be census or sample surveys. They may also be classified as social surveys, economic surveys, and public opinion surveys. Whatever be their type, the method of data collection happens to be either observation or interview or questionnaire or opinionnaire or some projective technique. Case method may as well be used.

5. In case of surveys, research design must be rigid, must make economical provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability, the aim happens to be to obtain complete and accurate information.

6. Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in the universe can be studied through surveys.

Structured Vs Unstructured Data Collection

The data collection through questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows;

? Structured disguised

? Structured – nondisguised

? Non-structured – disguised

? Non structured – nondisguised

Note: Non disguised data collection is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect method.

Structured data collection

A structured data collection is a formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the questions strictly in accordance with pre- arranged order. For e.g. this method can be used when the information is based on the expenditures of the consumer on different types of clothing like. Cotton woolen or synthetic, etc.

This structured questionnaire can be of two types, disguised and non- disguised, based on whether the object or the purpose of the survey is revealed to the respondent.

The main advantage of this method is that, the information can be collected in a systematic and orderly manner.

However when it comes to personal questions, this method seems to be less effective.

? Structured disguised: - In this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview, because he feels that by revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get defeated.

? Structured – nondisguised: - In this case the everything is pre- arranged and the researcher reveals the objective of the survey to the respondent. This is the most widely followed approach in market research. This is because it is generally felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence, so that he can realize the relevance and give desired information.

Non-structured data collection

It is a kind of data collection method where the data to be collected is not pre- arranged or not listed in a proper structured format. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the researcher to ask the respondent, in the way he feels fit. The researcher only has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be asked. Such a method is devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of freedom to collect the data in the order he wants. Again here there are two main types of non-structured methods of data collection.

? Non structured disguised: - again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent

? Non structured – non-disguised: – like in case of structured non- disguised, the respondent is taken into confidence by revealing the purpose of the survey.

Survey Method of Data Collection

Structured /disguised

The respondent is asked a structured set of questions in a preconceived format. However he is not made aware of the purpose of the survey. Such methods are useful in obtaining psychographic profiles, wherein, similar responses from a set of respondents would club them under a specific lifestyle segment.

Advantages

1) Since respondents are not aware of the objectives of the research, they do not give biased opinions.

2) The interviewer’s bias is reduced on account of the structured nature of the questionnaire.

Disadvantages

1) The respondents may show disinterest as he does not know the purpose of the survey.

2) It cannot be compared with other similar studies which are structured but non-disguised i.e. it would be difficult to check the reliability and validity of the results.

Non-structured/disguised

Herein, the respondent is again not aware of the purpose of the survey. At the same time, the questions posed to him do not follow an already throughout sequence. Projective techniques are available to get the innermost motivations, fears and aspirations of the respondent. The data lends itself to a more qualitative analysis.

For e.g. in the case study discussed in the adjoining column respondents were also asked to complete the following sentence in the latter part of the questionnaire.

Advantages

1) It is very interesting to the respondents who might participate willingly.

2) It is less time consuming & costly to collect the data as well as to analyze it since the number crunching involved is not there.

3) It is very useful to bring out the inner motivations and aspirations of the respondents.

Disadvantages

1) The respondents might not take the entire data collection effort very seriously; rather treat it as a game.

2) The qualitative research is totally dependent on the interpretations made by the researcher. It does not have any numerical analysis to support.

Structured/ Non-disguised.

Herein, the purpose of the survey as well as nature of the questions is made known to the respondents. The interviewer has little room for his own interpretations, as the questionnaire is fairly structured one to lend itself to statistical analysis. Most of the descriptive studies using the statistical survey method would fall under this category.

For e.g. based on the exploratory survey in the form of secondary data analysis, in-depth interviews and focus group interviews and focus group interviews, in the case of fresh orange juice, the data collection method most suited was the structured non-disguised type.

Non-structured/ Non- disguised.

The purpose of the survey is made known to the respondents and there is no rigidity in the questioning process. It is similar to the in-depth interviews and group interviews, which were discussed earlier. The flexibility in the questioning process allows attitudes and opinions to surface very freely and allows the respondents to speak deeply about the subject matter.

Opinions of the industry experts on how the industry would fare or economists on the direction of the growth of the economy or various financial institutions like IDBI, ICICI, or UTI etc., expressing their views on how the stock markets would be performing, are all illustrations of non-structured data collection methods. This method is gaining a lot of importance these days with a number these days with a number of experts being available on a variety of topics. Opinions of them would be crucial to consider before arriving at decisions

Observation Method of Data Collection

Structured / Disguised

In this case, the observers are told to record the actions of the respondents on a structured form but the respondents are not made aware that they are being observed. It is a structured, disguised study.

For e.g. observers may pose as customers to observe the sales made by salesman over counters in departmental stores selling a variety of brands of jeans, shirts, etc. in order to observe any type of brand push or persuasion by the sales person.

As a variation, he may position himself in the shop with permission by the management and observe the sales person interact with customers.

Advantages

1) The actual behavior of the person of interest is recorded (i.e. either salesman or customer); so chances of predisposition bias are low.

2) A natural setting is provided. For e.g. the arrangement of display options might be observed which one attracts the customer the most.

Disadvantages

1) It is not very ethical to observe peoples reactions by keeping them in the dark. It might be construed as spying.

2) The data recorded is totally dependent on the observer and his skills.

Non-Structured / Disguised

In this case, the observers are left free to observe the actions and responses of the respondents by using their own discretion to decide what may be of relevance and what not. This makes the exercise non-structured.

For e.g., social research observers may not be fully aware of what action options, could occur at the point of observations, so that flexibility of recording is necessary. Also, at times, reports on competitive activity on more than one parameter are required, all of which might be difficult to spell out in detail.

Advantages

1) The observer is not restricted and is free to observe the happenings in detail.

2) The actual behavior of the respondent is recorded with no predisposition bias.

3) It is very time-consuming and expensive. The purpose of research is lost if it takes too long.

Disadvantages

1) The observer may miss out important activities and record less relevant ones.

2) Observer bias is very high.

Structured / Non-disguised

The respondent is aware that he is being observed and the observer too is instructed to make the records, as per a predetermined structure.

The situation is similar to that in the experiments, which had been described where, control groups do not exist. The settings for such studies are usually not the natural atmosphere but a laboratory/ artificial setting. Use of mechanical/electronic devices like pupillometers/laser scanners in super markets/channel switch recorders to observe consumer behavior is being increasingly made in a structured manner with the respondent fully aware of the same.

For e.g. if the respondent is questioned about the choice/preferences of brand before he enters a shop and the actual brand purchased by him afterwards to gauge whether he has been influenced by the salesman, it is a structured non-disguised observation.

Advantages

1) The ethical issue of not informing the respondent is taken care of.

2) The structure in the study makes it less prone to manipulation and the data collected more reliable and valid.

Disadvantages

1) The respondent is predisposed and so a bias creeps in to actions.

2) The interaction between the respondent and the observer may influence the actions.

Non-structured / Non-disguised

The respondent is aware that he is being observed and the observer is free to make his observations, without using any preconceived format.

In many social research conditions involving rural areas, the observer might have to explain the rural folk the reasons why he is there and conceive them how the study will be useful to them. It may be required on the part of the researcher, to stay with the respondents to make any meaningful observations. Situations at orphanages, mental asylums, old-age homes or even public hospitals would benefit from such approach.

For e.g. if the issue of providing and using clean drinking water is to be studied at the village level, actual observation of collection and usage has to be made in each of the homes or else, they may report wrong actions.

Advantages

1) The method offers a high degree of flexibility to the observer and also takes care of the ethical issues.

2) Delicate social issues like child labor use of drugs, women welfare, use of hygienic food, water, dowry deaths are suited to such treatment.

Disadvantages

1) It is very expensive and time-consuming and lends itself to qualitative analysis only.

2) The analysis is totally dependent on the observer’s skills and interpretations. The time taken and the unstructured nature of the survey may frustrate the observer.

Communication methods of data collection

Mail method

Advantages

? May be only method

? Not subject to interviewer bias

? Respondents work at their own pace

? Assures anonymity of respondent

? Wide distribution possible

? Best for personal, sensitive questions

? Generally least expensive

Disadvantages

? Very little control

? Long response time

? Cannot explain ambiguous questions

? Difficult to change sequence of questions

? Sequence bias; respondents can view entire questionnaire

Telephone Method

Advantages

? Comparatively low cost

? Wide distribution possible

? Interviewer supervision is strong

? Quickest methods of data collection

? Allows easy use of computer support

? Sequence of questions is easily changed

Disadvantages

? Interviewer bias

? Difficult to establish representative sampling frame due to unlisted numbers

In-Home Personal Interview

Advantages

? Probably highest response rate

? Allows use of any type of question / questionnaire

? Sequencing of questions is easily changed

? Allows probing of open-ended questions

? Allows clarification of ambiguous questions

? Interviewer supervision and control

Disadvantages

? Generally most expensive

? Costly to revisit “not-at-homes”

? Relatively slow

? Interviewer bias

Internet

Advantages

? Very fast turnaround

? Very inexpensive

? Fairly versatile

? Survey responses automatically entered into a data file

? International sample possible

Disadvantages

? Sample is still not of general consumer markets

? Respondents may have concerns with privacy

? Response rates are dropping as novelty declines

3. EXPERIMENTATION METHOD

Many of important decisions facing the marketing executives cannot be settled by secondary research, observation method or survey method. experimentation method give solutions for such type of problems.

An experiment is a controlled study in which the researcher attempts to understand cause-and-effect relationships. The study is "controlled" in the sense that the researcher controls (1) how subjects are assigned to groups and (2) which treatments each group receives.

In the analysis phase, the researcher compares group scores on some dependent variable. Based on the analysis, the researcher draws a conclusion about whether the treatment ( independent variable) had a causal effect on the dependent variable.

4. CASE STUDY METHOD

Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. 

Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used:

• Determine and define the research questions
• Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
• Prepare to collect the data
• Collect data in the field
• Evaluate and analyze the data
• Prepare the report

 

Focus Groups

Focus groups are also known as group interviews or group discussions. They are used to understand the attitude or behaviour of the audience. Six to twelve individuals are selected and either one or two moderators (those who lead the discussions) are selected. If there are two moderators, they will adopt opposite positions. It is the moderator who introduces the topic. Discussion is controlled through these moderators. The group is watched from adjacent rooms. There are various devices which are used to record these discussions.

Objectives of Focus Group

1.   To gather primary information for research project;

2.   To help developing questionnaires in terms of survey research;

3.   To understand reason behind a particular phenomenon:

4.   To see how people interpret certain phenomenon;

5.   To test primarily ideas or plan

Steps involved in conducting Focus group

1.   Define the problem

2.   Select a sample

3.   Determine the number of groups necessary(minimum number should be two)

4.   Prepare the study mechanics. Arrange the respondents place where the focus group is to be assembled.

5.   Select moderators and brief them.

6.   Prepare the focus group material.

7.   Conduct the session.

8.   Analyze the data and prepare summary report.

Advantages of Focus Group

1.   It is used to collect primary information and therefore it can conduct a pilot study also.

2.   Relative cost is not much.

3.   It can be conducted quickly.

4.   It has flexibility.

5.   Moderator can detect the opinion and certificates of those who cannot speak well by facial expression and other non verbal behaviour.

6.   We can get the questionnaire filled up either before or after the discussion.

Disadvantages of Focus Group

1.   It is inappropriate for gathering quantitative data.

2.   Self appointed group leader may impose his /her opinion on other members. Moderators can restrict people.

3.   t depends heavily on skills of moderator.

4.   Respondents in the focus group may or may not represent the population from which they are drawn.

5.   Recording equipments are likely to restrict respondents. Location of recording equipment is very important.

 Depth Interview

 A detailed background is provided by the respondents and elaborate data concerning the respondents opinions, values, motivation, expression, feeling etc are obtained. Even their non-verbal expressions are observed. They take long time, therefore lengthy observations are involved.

These are conducted to customize individual responses. The questions will depend on what kind of answers are given. Even interview climate influences the respondents.

Advantages of Depth Interview

1.   Lot of detail is provided.

2.   Information obtained is comparatively more accurate.

3.   Personal or intimate topic can also be discussed since the personal rapport is established between the respondent and the interviewer.

Disadvantages of Depth Interview

 1.   It is difficult to generalize since the interviewers are non-standardized

2.   Since the success depends on the interviewer, there are chances of bias.

3.   Data analysis takes a lot of time.

Sources of secondary data

As is the case in primary research, secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands:

• Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and other related databases.

• Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups transcripts, field notes, observation records and other personal, research-related documents.