TYPES OF DATA
a)Quantitative'and Qualitative Data.
b) Sample and Census Data.
c) Primary and Secondary data.
a) Quantitative and Qualitative data: Quantitative data are those set of information which are
quantifiable and can be expressed in some standard units
Qualitative data, on the other
hand, are not quantifiable, that is, cannot be expressed in standard units of
measurement
b) Sample and Census Data: data can be collected either
by census method or sample method. Information collected through sample
inquiry is called sample data and the one collected through census inquiry is called
census data. Population census data are collected every ten years in India .
c) Primary and Secondary Data: primary data are collected by the
investigator through field survey. Such data are in raw form and must be
refined before use. On the other hand, secondary data are extracted from the
existing published or unpublished sources
Difference between primary and
secondary data
Primary
Data
·
Needs more funds.
·
Investigating Agency collects the data.
·
Requires longer time for collection.
·
More reliable and suitable to the enquiry because the investigator
himself collects it.
·
Requires elaborate organisation.
·
No extra precautions are required.
Secondary
Data
·
Needs comparatively less funds.
·
Some other investigating agency collects it for its own use.
·
Requires less time for collection.
·
Less reliable and suitable as someone else has done that job of
collection which may not serve the purpose.
·
No need of any organizational set up.
·
Secondary data need more care and attention.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE FOR PRIMARY
DATA
1. observation method
2. experimentation method
3. questionnaire method
4. interviewing
5. case study method
1) OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation becomes a scientific tool
and the method of data collection for the researcher when it serves a
formulated research purpose is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Under the observation method the
information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without
asking from respondent
ADVANTAGES
1. The method eliminates subjective
bias
2. The information obtained under
this method relates to what is current happening it is not complicated either
by past behaviour or future intentions and attitudes.
3. This method is independent of
respondent willingness to respondents as such is relatively less demanded of
active co-operation on the part of the respondents as happens to be the case in
interview or the questionnaire method.
4. This method is particularly
suitable in studies, which deal with subjects who are not capable giving verbal
reports of their feeling for one reason or the other.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Its s an expensive method
2. The information provided by this
method is very limited.
3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may
interfere with the observational task.
4. The fact that some people are
rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.
2) SURVEYS(QUESTIONNAIRE)
Surveys are concerned with
describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that exist or
existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for events
to happen Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that
exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are
evident or trends that are developing. They are primarily concerned with
present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to
current conditions.
1. Survey type researches usually
have larger samples because percentages of responses generally happen to be
low, as low as 20 to 30%, especially in mailed questionnaire studies. Thus, the
survey method gathers data relatively from the large number of cases at a
peculiar time; it is essentially cross-sectional.
2. Surveys are conducted in case of
descriptive research studies, usually appropriate in case of social and
behavioral sciences because many type of behavior that interest researcher
cannot be arranged in realistic setting.
3. Surveys are example of field
research and are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing analysis of
the relationship between non-manipulated variables.
4. Surveys may either be census or
sample surveys. They may also be classified as social surveys, economic
surveys, and public opinion surveys. Whatever be their type, the method of data
collection happens to be either observation or interview or questionnaire or
opinionnaire or some projective technique. Case method may as well be used.
5. In case of surveys, research
design must be rigid, must make economical provision for protection against
bias and must maximize reliability, the aim happens to be to obtain complete
and accurate information.
6. Possible relationships between the
data and the unknowns in the universe can be studied through surveys.
Structured Vs Unstructured Data
Collection
The data collection through
questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows;
? Structured disguised
? Structured – nondisguised
? Non-structured – disguised
? Non structured – nondisguised
Note: Non disguised data collection
is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect
method.
Structured data collection
A structured data collection is a
formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks
the questions strictly in accordance with pre- arranged order. For e.g. this
method can be used when the information is based on the expenditures of the
consumer on different types of clothing like. Cotton woolen or synthetic, etc.
This structured questionnaire can be
of two types, disguised and non- disguised, based on whether the object or the
purpose of the survey is revealed to the respondent.
The main advantage of this method is
that, the information can be collected in a systematic and orderly manner.
However when it comes to personal
questions, this method seems to be less effective.
? Structured disguised: - In
this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview, because
he feels that by revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get
defeated.
? Structured – nondisguised:
- In this case the everything is pre- arranged and the researcher reveals
the objective of the survey to the respondent. This is the most widely followed
approach in market research. This is because it is generally felt that the
respondent should be taken into confidence, so that he can realize the
relevance and give desired information.
Non-structured data collection
It is a kind of data collection
method where the data to be collected is not pre- arranged or not listed in a
proper structured format. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the
researcher to ask the respondent, in the way he feels fit. The researcher only
has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be asked. Such a
method is devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of
freedom to collect the data in the order he wants. Again here there are two
main types of non-structured methods of data collection.
? Non structured disguised:
- again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent
? Non structured – non-disguised:
– like in case of structured non- disguised, the respondent is taken into
confidence by revealing the purpose of the survey.
Survey
Method of Data Collection
Structured /disguised
The respondent is asked a structured
set of questions in a preconceived format. However he is not made aware of the
purpose of the survey. Such methods are useful in obtaining psychographic
profiles, wherein, similar responses from a set of respondents would club them
under a specific lifestyle segment.
Advantages
1) Since respondents are not aware of
the objectives of the research, they do not give biased opinions.
2) The interviewer̢۪s bias is
reduced on account of the structured nature of the questionnaire.
Disadvantages
1) The respondents may show
disinterest as he does not know the purpose of the survey.
2) It cannot be compared with other
similar studies which are structured but non-disguised i.e. it would be
difficult to check the reliability and validity of the results.
Non-structured/disguised
Herein, the respondent is again not
aware of the purpose of the survey. At the same time, the questions posed to
him do not follow an already throughout sequence. Projective techniques are
available to get the innermost motivations, fears and aspirations of the
respondent. The data lends itself to a more qualitative analysis.
For e.g. in the case study discussed
in the adjoining column respondents were also asked to complete the following
sentence in the latter part of the questionnaire.
Advantages
1) It is very interesting to the
respondents who might participate willingly.
2) It is less time consuming &
costly to collect the data as well as to analyze it since the number crunching
involved is not there.
3) It is very useful to bring out the
inner motivations and aspirations of the respondents.
Disadvantages
1) The respondents might not take the
entire data collection effort very seriously; rather treat it as a game.
2) The qualitative research is
totally dependent on the interpretations made by the researcher. It does not
have any numerical analysis to support.
Structured/ Non-disguised.
Herein, the purpose of the survey as
well as nature of the questions is made known to the respondents. The
interviewer has little room for his own interpretations, as the questionnaire
is fairly structured one to lend itself to statistical analysis. Most of the
descriptive studies using the statistical survey method would fall under this
category.
For e.g. based on the exploratory
survey in the form of secondary data analysis, in-depth interviews and focus
group interviews and focus group interviews, in the case of fresh orange juice,
the data collection method most suited was the structured non-disguised type.
Non-structured/ Non- disguised.
The purpose of the survey is made
known to the respondents and there is no rigidity in the questioning process.
It is similar to the in-depth interviews and group interviews, which were
discussed earlier. The flexibility in the questioning process allows attitudes
and opinions to surface very freely and allows the respondents to speak deeply
about the subject matter.
Opinions of the industry experts on
how the industry would fare or economists on the direction of the growth of the
economy or various financial institutions like IDBI, ICICI, or UTI etc.,
expressing their views on how the stock markets would be performing, are all
illustrations of non-structured data collection methods. This method is gaining
a lot of importance these days with a number these days with a number of
experts being available on a variety of topics. Opinions of them would be
crucial to consider before arriving at decisions
Observation Method of Data Collection
Structured / Disguised
In this case, the observers are told
to record the actions of the respondents on a structured form but the
respondents are not made aware that they are being observed. It is a
structured, disguised study.
For e.g. observers may pose as
customers to observe the sales made by salesman over counters in departmental
stores selling a variety of brands of jeans, shirts, etc. in order to observe
any type of brand push or persuasion by the sales person.
As a variation, he may position
himself in the shop with permission by the management and observe the sales
person interact with customers.
Advantages
1) The actual behavior of the person
of interest is recorded (i.e. either salesman or customer); so chances of
predisposition bias are low.
2) A natural setting is provided. For
e.g. the arrangement of display options might be observed which one attracts
the customer the most.
Disadvantages
1) It is not very ethical to observe
peoples reactions by keeping them in the dark. It might be construed as spying.
2) The data recorded is totally
dependent on the observer and his skills.
Non-Structured / Disguised
In this case, the observers are left
free to observe the actions and responses of the respondents by using their own
discretion to decide what may be of relevance and what not. This makes the
exercise non-structured.
For e.g., social research observers
may not be fully aware of what action options, could occur at the point of
observations, so that flexibility of recording is necessary. Also, at times,
reports on competitive activity on more than one parameter are required, all of
which might be difficult to spell out in detail.
Advantages
1) The observer is not restricted and
is free to observe the happenings in detail.
2) The actual behavior of the
respondent is recorded with no predisposition bias.
3) It is very time-consuming and
expensive. The purpose of research is lost if it takes too long.
Disadvantages
1) The observer may miss out
important activities and record less relevant ones.
2) Observer bias is very high.
Structured / Non-disguised
The respondent is aware that he is
being observed and the observer too is instructed to make the records, as per a
predetermined structure.
The situation is similar to that in
the experiments, which had been described where, control groups do not exist.
The settings for such studies are usually not the natural atmosphere but a
laboratory/ artificial setting. Use of mechanical/electronic devices like
pupillometers/laser scanners in super markets/channel switch recorders to
observe consumer behavior is being increasingly made in a structured manner
with the respondent fully aware of the same.
For e.g. if the respondent is questioned
about the choice/preferences of brand before he enters a shop and the actual
brand purchased by him afterwards to gauge whether he has been influenced by
the salesman, it is a structured non-disguised observation.
Advantages
1) The ethical issue of not informing
the respondent is taken care of.
2) The structure in the study makes
it less prone to manipulation and the data collected more reliable and valid.
Disadvantages
1) The respondent is predisposed and
so a bias creeps in to actions.
2) The interaction between the
respondent and the observer may influence the actions.
Non-structured / Non-disguised
The respondent is aware that he is
being observed and the observer is free to make his observations, without using
any preconceived format.
In many social research conditions
involving rural areas, the observer might have to explain the rural folk the
reasons why he is there and conceive them how the study will be useful to them.
It may be required on the part of the researcher, to stay with the respondents
to make any meaningful observations. Situations at orphanages, mental asylums,
old-age homes or even public hospitals would benefit from such approach.
For e.g. if the issue of providing
and using clean drinking water is to be studied at the village level, actual
observation of collection and usage has to be made in each of the homes or
else, they may report wrong actions.
Advantages
1) The method offers a high degree of
flexibility to the observer and also takes care of the ethical issues.
2) Delicate social issues like child
labor use of drugs, women welfare, use of hygienic food, water, dowry deaths
are suited to such treatment.
Disadvantages
1) It is very expensive and
time-consuming and lends itself to qualitative analysis only.
2) The analysis is totally dependent
on the observer̢۪s skills and interpretations. The time taken and the
unstructured nature of the survey may frustrate the observer.
Communication methods of data
collection
Mail method
Advantages
? May be only method
? Not subject to interviewer bias
? Respondents work at their own pace
? Assures anonymity of respondent
? Wide distribution possible
? Best for personal, sensitive
questions
? Generally least expensive
Disadvantages
? Very little control
? Long response time
? Cannot explain ambiguous questions
? Difficult to change sequence of
questions
? Sequence bias; respondents can view
entire questionnaire
Telephone Method
Advantages
? Comparatively low cost
? Wide distribution possible
? Interviewer supervision is strong
? Quickest methods of data collection
? Allows easy use of computer support
? Sequence of questions is easily
changed
Disadvantages
? Interviewer bias
? Difficult to establish
representative sampling frame due to unlisted numbers
In-Home Personal Interview
Advantages
? Probably highest response rate
? Allows use of any type of question
/ questionnaire
? Sequencing of questions is easily
changed
? Allows probing of open-ended
questions
? Allows clarification of ambiguous
questions
? Interviewer supervision and control
Disadvantages
? Generally most expensive
? Costly to revisit â€Å“not-at-homesâ€
? Relatively slow
? Interviewer bias
Internet
Advantages
? Very fast turnaround
? Very inexpensive
? Fairly versatile
? Survey responses automatically
entered into a data file
? International sample possible
Disadvantages
? Sample is still not of general
consumer markets
? Respondents may have concerns with
privacy
? Response rates are dropping as
novelty declines
3. EXPERIMENTATION METHOD
Many of important decisions facing
the marketing executives cannot be settled by secondary research, observation
method or survey method. experimentation method give solutions for such type of
problems.
An experiment is a controlled study
in which the researcher attempts to understand cause-and-effect relationships.
The study is "controlled" in the sense that the researcher controls
(1) how subjects are assigned to groups and (2) which treatments each group
receives.
In the analysis phase, the researcher compares group scores on some dependent variable. Based on the analysis, the researcher draws a conclusion about whether the treatment ( independent variable) had a causal effect on the dependent variable.
In the analysis phase, the researcher compares group scores on some dependent variable. Based on the analysis, the researcher draws a conclusion about whether the treatment ( independent variable) had a causal effect on the dependent variable.
4. CASE STUDY METHOD
Case study research excels at
bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend
experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.
Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and their relationships.
Many well-known case study
researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin have
written about case study research and suggested techniques for organizing and
conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research
draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used:
- Determine
and define the research questions
- Select the
cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
- Prepare to
collect the data
- Collect data
in the field
- Evaluate and
analyze the data
- Prepare the
report
Focus
Groups
Focus groups are also known as group
interviews or group discussions. They are used to understand the attitude or
behaviour of the audience. Six to twelve individuals are selected and either
one or two moderators (those who lead the discussions) are selected. If there
are two moderators, they will adopt opposite positions. It is the moderator who
introduces the topic. Discussion is controlled through these moderators. The
group is watched from adjacent rooms. There are various devices which are used
to record these discussions.
Objectives of Focus Group
1. To gather primary information for
research project;
2. To help developing questionnaires in
terms of survey research;
3. To understand reason behind a
particular phenomenon:
4. To see how people interpret certain
phenomenon;
5. To test primarily ideas or plan
Steps involved in conducting Focus
group
1. Define the problem
2. Select a sample
3. Determine the number of groups
necessary(minimum number should be two)
4. Prepare the study mechanics. Arrange
the respondents place where the focus group is to be assembled.
5. Select moderators and brief them.
6. Prepare the focus group material.
7. Conduct the session.
8. Analyze the data and prepare summary
report.
Advantages of Focus Group
1. It is used to collect primary
information and therefore it can conduct a pilot study also.
2. Relative cost is not much.
3. It can be conducted quickly.
4. It has flexibility.
5. Moderator can detect the opinion and
certificates of those who cannot speak well by facial expression and other non
verbal behaviour.
6. We can get the questionnaire filled
up either before or after the discussion.
Disadvantages of Focus Group
1. It is inappropriate for gathering
quantitative data.
2. Self appointed group leader may
impose his /her opinion on other members. Moderators can restrict people.
3. t depends heavily on skills of
moderator.
4. Respondents in the focus group may or
may not represent the population from which they are drawn.
5. Recording equipments are likely to
restrict respondents. Location of recording equipment is very important.
Depth Interview
A detailed background is
provided by the respondents and elaborate data concerning the respondents
opinions, values, motivation, expression, feeling etc are obtained. Even their
non-verbal expressions are observed. They take long time, therefore lengthy
observations are involved.
These
are conducted to customize individual responses. The questions will depend on
what kind of answers are given. Even interview climate influences the
respondents.
Advantages of Depth Interview
1.
Lot of
detail is provided.
2.
Information obtained is comparatively more
accurate.
3. Personal or intimate topic can also be discussed since the personal rapport is established between the respondent and the interviewer.
Disadvantages of Depth Interview
1.
It is difficult to generalize since the
interviewers are non-standardized
2.
Since the success depends on the interviewer,
there are chances of bias.
3.
Data analysis takes a lot of time.
Sources
of secondary data
As is the case in primary research,
secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands:
- Quantitative:
Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and other
related databases.
- Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured
interviews, focus groups transcripts, field
notes, observation records and other personal, research-related
documents.
0 Comments